Effect of skipping breakfast on cerebral blood flow and cardiovascular function under a mental load in healthy female students
Main Article Content
Keywords
skip breakfast, mental loads, cerebral blood flow, sympathetic activity, energy expenditure, NIRS.
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the influence of skipping breakfast on the performance of a mental arithmetic load from the physiological viewpoint. In 16 healthy female university students who habitually eat breakfast, cerebral blood flow measured (CBF) by near-infrared spectroscopy, blood glucose, ketone bodies, autonomic nerve activity measured by electrocardiography, and energy expenditure measured by indirect calorimetry were monitored during a mental arithmetic load after eating and not eating breakfast, and cross-over evaluations were performed. The number of correct answers given to the arithmetic test; the levels of blood glucose, energy expenditure, and respiratory quotient; and the changes in deoxyhemoglobin in the CBF were significantly lower on the day breakfast was eaten than not eaten (p<0.05). In contrast, significant increases in ketone bodies, parasympathetic nervous system activity, and changes in the tissue oxygenation index in CBF were observed during the arithmetic test on the day breakfast was not eaten than eaten (p<0.05). Poorer performances, low levels of deoxyhemoglobin, and high levels of tissue oxygenation index in CBF were observed during mental loads in the students who skipped breakfast. This study suggested that physiologically, skipping breakfast may cause problems in academic performance.
References
2 Edefonti V, Rosato V, Parpinel M, et al. The effect of breakfast composition and energy contribution on cognitive and academic performance: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr 2014; 100: 626–56.
3 Ni Mhurchu C, Turley M, Gorton D, et al. Effects of a free school breakfast programmed on school attendance, achievement, psychosocial function, and nutrition: a stepped wedge cluster randomized trial. BMC Public Health 2010; 10: 738.
4 Powell CA, Walker SP, Chang SM, Grantham McGregor SM. Nutrition and education: a randomized trial of the effects of breakfast in rural primary school children. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 68: 873–9.
5 Wesnes KA, Pincock C, Richardson D, Helm G, Hails S. Breakfast reduces declines in attention and memory over the morning in schoolchildren. Appetite 2003; 41: 329–31.
6 Chandler AM, Walker SP, Connolly K, Grantham-McGregor SM. School breakfast improves verbal fluency in undernourished Jamaican children. J Nutr 1995; 125: 894–900.
7 Vaisman N, Voet H, Akivis A, Vakil E. Effect of breakfast timing on the cognitive functions of elementary school students. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 1996; 150: 1089–92.
8 Smith A, Kendrick A, Maben A, Salmon J. Effects of breakfast and caffeine on cognitive performance, mood and cardiovascular functioning. Appetite 1994; 22: 39–55.
9 Reeves S, Huber JW, Halsey LG, Villegas-Montes M, Elgumati J, Smith T. A cross-over experiment to investigate possible mechanisms for lower BMIs in people who habitually eat breakfast. Eur J Clin Nutr 2015; 69: 632–637.
10 Pollitt E, Leibel RL, Greenfield D. Brief fasting, stress, and cognition in children. Am J Clin Nutr 1981; 34: 1526–33.
11 Pivik RT, Tennal KB, Chapman SD, Gu Y. Eating breakfast enhances the efficiency of neural networks engaged during mental arithmetic in school-aged children. Physiol Behav 2012; 106: 548–55.
12 Tataranni PA, Gautier JF, Chen K, et al. Neuroanatomical correlates of hunger and satiation in humans using positron emission tomography. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1999; 96: 4569–74.
13 Wierenga CE, Bischoff-Grethe A, Rasmusson G, et al. Aberrant cerebral blood flow in response to hunger and satiety in women remitted from anorexia nervosa. Front. Nutr 2017; 4: 1–11.
14 Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. Summaries of the National Health and Nutrition Survey. The National Health and Nutrition Survey for Japanese 201722. Retrieved March 28, 2019, from https://www.mhlw.go.jp/content/10904750/000351576.pdf (in Japanese)
15 Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. The energy requirement, the food uptake standard, Dietary Reference Intake for Japanese 2009, 61. Retrieved March 28, 2019, from https://www.mhlw.go.jp/shingi/2009/05/dl/s0529-4e.pdf (in Japanese)
16 Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. The energy providind nutrients’ balance, the food uptake standard, Dietary Reference Intake for Japanese 2015, 115-25. Retrieved March 28, 2019, from https://www.mhlw.go.jp/file/06-Seisakujouhou-10900000-Kenkoukyoku/0000208961.pdf.
17 Jern S. Effects of acute carbohydrate administration on central and peripheral hemodynamic responses to mental stress. Hypertension 1991; 18: 790–797.
18 Fonkoue IT, Carter JR. Sympathetic neural reactivity to mental stress in humans: test-retest reproducibility. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2015; 309: 1380–86.
19 Szabo A, Gauvin L. Reactivity to written mental arithmetic: effects of exercise lay-off and habituation. Physiol Behav 1992; 51: 501–6.
20 Kato S, Yoshitani K, Kubota Y, Inatomi Y, Ohnishi Y. Effect of posture and extracranial contamination on results of cerebral oximetry by near-infrared spectroscopy. J Anesth 2017; 31: 103–10.
21 Villringer A, Planck J, Hock C, Schleinkofer L, Dirnagl U. Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS): A new tool to study hemodynamic changes during activation of brain function in human adults. Neurosci Lett 1993; 154: 101–104.
22 Thavasothy M, Broadhead M, Elwell C, Peters M, Smith M. A comparison of cerebral oxygenation as measured by the NIRO 300 and the INVOS 5100 near-infrared spectrophotometers. Anaesthesia 2002; 57: 999–1006.
23 Wong F, Yiallourou SR, Odoi A, Browne P, Walker AM, Horne RS. Cerebrovascular control is altered in healthy term infants when they sleep prone. Sleep 2013; 36: 1911–8.
24 Wong FY, Witcombe NB, Yiallourou SR, et al. Cerebral oxygenation is depressed during sleep in healthy term infants when they sleep prone. Pediatrics 2011; 127: 558–65.
25 Okamoto M, Dan H, Sakamoto K, et al. Three-dimensional probabilistic anatomical cranio-cerebral correlation via the international 10-20 system oriented for transcranial functional brain mapping. Neuroimage 2004; 21: 99–111.
26 Pagani M, Lombardi F, Guzzetti S, et al. Power spectral analysis of heart rate and arterial pressure variabilities as a marker of sympatho-vagal interaction in man and conscious dog. Circ Res 1986; 59: 178–93.
27 Tochikubo O, Ikeda A, Miyajima E, Ishii M. Effects of insufficient sleep on blood pressure monitored by a new multibiomedical recorder. Hypertension 1996; 27: 1318–24.
28 Sammito S, Böckelmann I. Reference values for time- and frequency-domain heart rate variability measures. Heart Rhythm 2016; 16: 169–77.
29 Sawai A, Ohshige K, Yamasue K, Hayashi T, Tochikubo O. Influence of mental stress on cardiovascular function as evaluated by changes in energy expenditure. Hypertens Res 2007; 30: 1019–26.
30 Iwayama K, Kawabuchi R, Park I, et al. Transient energy deficit induced by exercise increases 24-h fat oxidation in young trained men. J Appl Physiol 1985, 2015; 118: 80–5.
31 Mehmet S, Quan G, Thomas S, Goldsmith D. Important causes of hypoglycemia in patients with diabetes on peritoneal dialysis. Diabet Med 2001; 18: 679–682.
32 Janssen MJ, Hendrickx BHE, Habets-van der Poel CD, van den Bergh JPW, Hagen AAM, Bakker JA. Accuracy of the Precision® point-of-care ketone test examined by LC-MS/MS in the same fingerstick sample. Ned Tijdschr Klin Chem Labgeneesk 2010; 35: 186–8.
33 Politt E, Cueto S, Jacoby ER. Fasting and cognition in well and undernourished schoolchildren: a review of three experimental studies. Am J Clin Nutr 1998; 67: 779–84.
34 Nielsen HB, Boushel R, Madsen P, Secher NH. Cerebral desaturation during exercise reversed by O2 supplementation. Am J Physiol 1999; 277: 1045–52.
35 Ide K, Horn A, Secher NH. Cerebral metabolic response to submaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol 1985, 1999; 87: 1604–8.
36 Toichi M, Findling RL, Kubota Y, et al. Hemodynamic differences in the activation of the prefrontal cortex: attention vs. higher cognitive processing. Neuropsychologia 2004; 42: 698–706.
37 Tanida M, Sakatani K, Takano R, Tagai K. Relation between asymmetry of prefrontal cortex activities and the autonomic nervous system during a mental arithmetic task: near infrared spectroscopy study. Neurosci Lett 2004; 369: 69–74.
38 Hermann MJ, Ehlis AC, Fallgatter. Bilaterally reduced frontal activation during a verbal fluency task in depressed patients as measured by near-infrared spectroscopy. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2004; 16: 170–5.
39 Obring H, Wenzel R, Kohl M, et al. Near-infrared spectroscopy: does it function in functional activation studies of the adult brain? Int J Psychophysiol 2000; 35: 125–42.
40 Kuebler WM, Sckell A, Habler O, et al. Noninvasive measurement of regional cerebral blood flow by near-infrared spectroscopy and indocyanine green. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 1998; 18: 445–56.
41 Jackson PA, Kennedy DO. The application of near infrared spectroscopy in nutritional intervention studies. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 473: 1-5.
42 Higashi T, Sone Y, Ogawa K, et al. Changes in regional cerebral blood volume in frontal cortex during mental work with and without caffeine intake: functional monitoring using near-infrared spectroscopy. J Biomed Opt 2004; 9: 788–793.
43 Pivik RT, Dykman RA. Cardiovascular effects of morning nutrition in preadolescents. Physiol Behav 2004; 82: 295–302.
44 Strobbe S, Van Der Straeten D. Toward eradication of B-vitamin deficiencies: Considerations for crop biofortification. Front Plant Sci 2018; 9: 443.
45 Westerterp KR. Food quotient, respiratory quotient, and energy balance. Am J Clin Nutr 1993; 57: 759–64.
Article Sidebar
Article Details
How to Cite
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Transfer of Copyright and Permission to Reproduce Parts of Published Papers.
Authors retain the copyright for their published work. No formal permission will be required to reproduce parts (tables or illustrations) of published papers, provided the source is quoted appropriately and reproduction has no commercial intent. Reproductions with commercial intent will require written permission and payment of royalties.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
How to Cite
