Infectious risk profile and strategies for prevention and control of outbreaks in refugee, asylum seekers and migrant populations in EU/EEA countries: a systematic narrative review of evidences
Keywords:
Global health; migrant centers; shelters; vaccine-preventable diseases; immunization; screening; preventionAbstract
Background. The recent surge in migration to and within the European Union and European Economic Area has brought the development of migration policy, including health policy, to the forefront of regional priorities. While migrants, in general, do not pose a health threat to the host population, specific subgroups of migrants, including refugees, asylum seekers, and irregular migrants, are particularly vulnerable to infectious diseases. To support public health policies in this area, the Emergency Preparedness and Management’ working group of the Italian Society of Hygiene, Preventive Medicine and Public Health has conducted a systematic narrative review with the aim to comprehensively analyze the infectious disease risk within the refugee and asylum seeker populations in EU, EEA, and EU-applicant countries.
Methods. Forty-two studies were systematically selected from scientific articles in the MEDLINE/PubMed database from January 1, 2008, to June 1, 2023. The infectious risk associated with each infectious disease among refugees and [...]
References
1. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). Public health guidance on screening and vaccination for infectious diseases in newly arrived migrants within the EU/EEA. Available from: [https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/public-health-guidance-screening-andvaccination-infectious-diseases-newly](https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/public-health-guidance-screening-andvaccination-infectious-diseases-newly) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
2. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2022. Available from: [https://www.unhcr.org/global-trends](https://www.unhcr.org/global-trends) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
3. International Organization for Migration (IOM). World Migration Report 2022. Available from: [https://publications.iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2022](https://publications.iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2022) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
4. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Refugee Data Finder. Classifying refugee host countries by income level. Available from: [https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/insights/explainers/refugeehost-countries-income-level.html](https://www.unhcr.org/refugee-statistics/insights/explainers/refugeehost-countries-income-level.html) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
5. International Organization for Migration (IOM). World Migration Report 2015. Migrants and cities: new partnerships to manage mobility. Available from: [https://publications.iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2015-migrants-andcities-new-partnerships-manage-mobility](https://publications.iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2015-migrants-andcities-new-partnerships-manage-mobility) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
6. Castelli F, Sulis G. Migration and infectious diseases. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2017 May; 23(5): 283-9. doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.03.012. Epub 2017 Mar 20. PMID: 28336382.
7. Greenaway C, Castelli F. Infectious diseases at different stages of migration: an expert review. J Travel Med. 2019 Feb 1; 26(2): taz007. doi: 10.1093/jtm/taz007. PMID: 30726941.
8. Eiset AH, Wejse C. Review of infectious diseases in refugees and asylum seekers-current status and going forward. Public Health Rev. 2017 Sep 8; 38: 22. doi: 10.1186/s40985-017-0065-4. PMID: 29450094; PMCID: PMC5810046.
9. Saleh M, Farah Z, Howard N. Infectious disease surveillance for refugees at borders and in destination countries: a scoping review. BMC Public Health. 2022 Feb 4; 22(1): 227. doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-12646-7. PMID: 35114956; PMCID: PMC8813574.
10. Heywood AE, López-Vélez R. Reducing infectious disease inequities among migrants. J Travel Med. 2019 Feb 1; 26(2): tay131. doi: 10.1093/jtm/tay131. PMID: 30476162.
11. Wickramage K, Vearey J, Zwi AB, Robinson C, Knipper M. Migration and health: a global public health research priority. BMC Public Health. 2018 Aug 8; 18(1): 987. doi: 10.1186/s12889-018-5932-5.
12. Wickramage K, Vearey J, Zwi AB, Robinson C, Knipper M. Migration and health: a global public health research priority. BMC Public Health. 2018 Aug 8; 18(1): 987. doi: 10.1186/s12889-018-5932-5. PMID: 30089475; PMCID: PMC6083569.
13. Page MJ, McKenzie JE, Bossuyt PM, Boutron I, Hoffmann TC, Mulrow CD, et al. The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ. 2021 Mar 29; 372: n71. doi: 10.1136/bmj.n71. PMID: 33782057; PMCID: PMC8005924.
14. Schultze T, Hogardt M, Velázquez ES, Hack D, Besier S, Wichelhaus TA, et al. Molecular surveillance of multidrug-resistant Gram-negative bacteria in Ukrainian patients, Germany, March to June 2022. Euro Surveill. 2023 Jan; 28(1): 2200850. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2023.28.1.2200850. PMID: 36695452; PMCID: PMC9817211.
15. Solomos Z, Mothoneou AM, Boukouvalas G, Niakos I, Kavga A, Tsekoura D. Covid-19 case management in a Greek migrant camp: The Hellenic Red Cross Mobile Health Unit intervention in Nea Malakasa temporary accommodation center. J Migr Health. 2023; 7:100184. doi: 10.1016/j.jmh.2023.100184. Epub 2023 Mar 23. PMID: 36994423; PMCID: PMC10033494.
16. Badenschier F, Berger A, Dangel A, Sprenger A, Hobmaier B, Sievers C, et al. Outbreak of imported diphtheria with Corynebacterium diphtheriae among migrants arriving in Germany, 2022. Euro Surveill. 2022 Nov; 27(46): 2200849. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2022.27.46.2200849. PMID: 36398576; PMCID: PMC9673234.
17. Creutz I, Busche T, Layer F, Bednarz H, Kalinowski J, Niehaus K. Evaluation of virulence potential of methicillin-sensitive and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates from a German refugee cohort. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2022 Jan-Feb; 45: 102204. doi: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2021.102204. Epub 2021 Nov 13. PMID: 34785377.
18. Louka C, Logothetis E, Engelman D, Samiotaki-Logotheti E, Pournaras S, Stienstra Y. Scabies epidemiology in health care centers for refugees and asylum seekers in Greece. PLoS Negl Trop Dis. 2022 Jun 22; 16(6): e0010153. doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010153. PMID: 35731821; PMCID: PMC9255768.
19. Mellou K, Gkolfinopoulou K, Andreopoulou A, Tsekou A, Papadima K, Stamoulis K, et al. A COVID-19 outbreak among migrants in a hosting facility in Greece, April 2020. J Infect Prev. 2022 Sep; 23(5): 235-8. doi: 10.1177/17571774221092568. Epub 2022 May 4. PMID: 36003137; PMCID: PMC9389273.
20. Troiano G, Torchia G, Nardi A. Vaccine hesitancy among Ukrainian refugees. J Prev Med Hyg. 2022 Dec 31; 63(4): E566-E572. doi: 10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2022.63.4.2774. PMID: 36890995; PMCID: PMC9986985.
21. Fabris S, d’Ettorre G, Spagnolello O, Russo A, Lopalco M, D’Agostino F, et al. SARS-CoV-2 Among Migrants Recently Arrived in Europe From Low- and Middle-Income Countries: Containment Strategies and Special Features of Management in Reception Centers. Front Public Health. 2021 Nov 30; 9: 735601. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2021.735601. PMID: 34917571; PMCID: PMC8669389.
22. Kondilis E, Papamichail D, McCann S, Carruthers E, Veizis A, Orcutt M, et al. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on refugees and asylum seekers in Greece: A retrospective analysis of national surveillance data from 2020. EClinicalMedicine. 2021 Jul 1; 37: 100958. doi: 10.1016/j.eclinm.2021.100958. PMID: 34258570; PMCID: PMC8256175.
23. Le Bihan C, Faucherre V, Le Moing V, Mehenni V, Nantes D, Da Silva A, et al. COVID-19: The forgotten cases of hidden exiles. Infect Dis Now. 2021 Jun; 51(4): 387-390. doi: 10.1016/j.idnow.2021.01.008. Epub 2021 Jan 22. PMID: 33521773; PMCID: PMC7826099.
24. Norman FF, Comeche B, Martínez-Lacalzada M, Pérez-Molina JA, Gullón B, Monge-Maillo B, et al. Seroprevalence of vaccine-preventable and non-vaccine-preventable infections in migrants in Spain. J Travel Med. 2021 Jun 1; 28(4): taab025. doi: 10.1093/jtm/taab025. PMID: 33611577.
25. Sisti LG, Di Napoli A, Petrelli A, Rossi A, Diodati A, Menghini M, et al. COVID-19 Impact in the Italian Reception System for Migrants during the Nationwide Lockdown: A National Observational Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Nov 25; 18(23): 12380. doi: 10.3390/ijerph182312380. PMID: 34886106; PMCID: PMC8656734.
26. Turunen T, Kontunen K, Sugulle K, Hieta P, Snellman O, Hussein I, Dub T, et al. COVID-19 outbreak at a reception centre for asylum seekers in Espoo, Finland. J Migr Health. 2021; 3: 100043. doi: 10.1016/j.jmh.2021.100043. Epub 2021 Apr 16. PMID: 33880457; PMCID: PMC8051004.
27. Bosetti P, Poletti P, Stella M, Lepri B, Merler S, De Domenico M. Heterogeneity in social and epidemiological factors determines the risk of measles outbreaks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020 Dec 1; 117(48): 30118-30125. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1920986117. Epub 2020 Nov 17. PMID: 33203683; PMCID: PMC7720222.
28. Donisi A, Gerna L, Fietta T, Grecchi C. Screening approach among newly arrived asylum seekers: experience in a primary health care setting in Piacenza, Emilia Romagna, Northern Italy. J Prev Med Hyg. 2020 Oct 6; 61(3): E445-E450. doi: 10.15167/2421-4248/jpmh2020.61.3.1528. PMID: 33150232; PMCID: PMC7595074.
29. Gilman RT, Mahroof-Shaffi S, Harkensee C, Chamberlain AT. Modelling interventions to control COVID-19 outbreaks in a refugee camp. BMJ Glob Health. 2020 Dec; 5(12): e003727. doi: 10.1136/bmjgh-2020-003727. PMID: 33303516; PMCID: PMC7733233.
30. Grecchi C, Sarda C, Manciulli T, Scudeller L, Leoni C, Mariani B, et al. Screening program for latent tuberculosis infection in asylum seekers - a single center experience in Pavia, Italy. Ann Ig. 2020 Nov-Dec; 32(6): 682-8. doi: 10.1183/13993003.00896-2019. PMID: 33175078.
31. Padovese V, Farrugia A, Almabrok Ali Ghath S, Rossoni I. Sexually transmitted infections’ epidemiology and knowledge, attitude and practice survey in a set of migrants attending the sexual health clinic in Malta. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol. 2021 Feb; 35(2): 509-516. doi: 10.1111/jdv.16949. Epub 2020 Oct 21. PMID: 32967045.
32. Pogka V, Horefti E, Evangelidou M, Kostaki EG, Paraskevis D, Flountzi A, et al. Spatiotemporal Distribution and Genetic Characterization of Measles Strains Circulating in Greece during the 2017-2018 Outbreak. Viruses. 2020 Oct 15; 12(10): 1166. doi: 10.3390/v12101166. PMID: 33076287; PMCID: PMC7602502.
33. El-Khatib Z, Taus K, Richter L, Allerberger F, Schmid D. A Syndrome-Based Surveillance System for Infectious Diseases Among Asylum Seekers in Austrian Reception Centers, 2015-2018: Analysis of Reported Data. JMIR Public Health Surveill. 2019 Feb 27; 5(1): e11465. doi: 10.2196/11465. PMID: 30810535; PMCID: PMC6414818.
34. Giambi C, Del Manso M, Dalla Zuanna T, Riccardo F, Bella A, Caporali MG, Baka A, et al; CARE working group for the National Immunization Survey. National immunization strategies targeting migrants in six European countries. Vaccine. 2019 Jul 26; 37(32): 4610-4617. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.01.060. Epub 2018 Feb 6. PMID: 29426661.
35. Ackermann N, Marosevic D, Hörmansdorfer S, Eberle U, Rieder G, Treis B, et al. Screening for infectious diseases among newly arrived asylum seekers, Bavaria, Germany, 2015. Euro Surveill. 2018 Mar; 23(10): 17-00176. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.10.17-00176. PMID: 29536830; PMCID: PMC5850590.
36. Alberer M, Malinowski S, Sanftenberg L, Schelling J. Notifiable infectious diseases in refugees and asylum seekers: experience from a major reception center in Munich, Germany. Infection. 2018 Jun; 46(3): 375-83. doi: 10.1007/s15010-018-1134-4. Epub 2018 Apr 3. PMID: 29616458.
37. Buonfrate D, Gobbi F, Marchese V, Postiglione C, Badona Monteiro G, Giorli G, et al. Extended screening for infectious diseases among newly-arrived asylum seekers from Africa and Asia, Verona province, Italy, April 2014 to June 2015. Euro Surveill. 2018 Apr; 23(16): 17-00527. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.16.17-00527. PMID: 29692316; PMCID: PMC5915973.
38. Ceccarelli G, Vita S, Riva E, Cella E, Lopalco M, Antonelli F, et al; Sanitary Bureau of the Asylum Seekers Center of Castelnuovo di Porto. Susceptibility to measles in migrant population: implication for policy makers. J Travel Med. 2018 Jan 1; 25(1). doi: 10.1093/jtm/tax080. PMID: 29232456.
39. Ciccozzi M, Riva E, Vita S, Cella E, Fogolari M, Spoto S, et al. An acute febrile outbreak in a refugee community of an Italian asylum seeker center: lessons learned. Public Health. 2018 Oct; 163: 16-19. doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2018.05.026. Epub 2018 Jul 20. PMID: 30031836; PMCID: PMC7111893.
40. Collin SM, de Vries G, Lönnroth K, Migliori GB, Abubakar I, Anderson SR, et al. Tuberculosis in the European Union and European Economic Area: a survey of national tuberculosis programmes. Eur Respir J. 2018 Dec 6; 52(6): 1801449. doi: 10.1183/13993003.01449-2018. PMID: 30309977.
41. Ehlkes L, George M, Knautz D, Burckhardt F, Jahn K, Vogt M, et al. Negligible import of enteric pathogens by newly-arrived asylum seekers and no impact on incidence of notified Salmonella and Shigella infections and outbreaks in Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, January 2015 to May 2016. Euro Surveill. 2018 May; 23(20): 17-00463. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.20.17-00463. PMID: 29790462; PMCID: PMC6152426.
42. Freidl GS, Tostmann A, Curvers M, Ruijs WLM, Smits G, Schepp R, et al. Immunity against measles, mumps, rubella, varicella, diphtheria, tetanus, polio, hepatitis A and hepatitis B among adult asylum seekers in the Netherlands, 2016. Vaccine. 2018 Mar 14; 36(12): 1664-1672. doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.01.079. Epub 2018 Feb 14. PMID: 29454516.
43. Kloning T, Nowotny T, Alberer M, Hoelscher M, Hoffmann A, Froeschl G. Morbidity profile and sociodemographic characteristics of unaccompanied refugee minors seen by paediatric practices between October 2014 and February 2016 in Bavaria, Germany. BMC Public Health. 2018 Aug 7; 18(1): 983. doi: 10.1186/s12889-018-5878-7. PMID: 30086731; PMCID: PMC6081864.
44. Rojek AM, Gkolfinopoulou K, Veizis A, Lambrou A, Castle L, Georgakopoulou T, et al; Epidemic Diseases Research Group field team. Clinical assessment is a neglected component of outbreak preparedness: evidence from refugee camps in Greece. BMC Med. 2018 Mar 19; 16(1): 43. doi: 10.1186/s12916-018-1015-9. PMID: 29551092; PMCID: PMC5858141.
45. Sarma N, Ullrich A, Wilking H, Ghozzi S, Lindner AK, Weber C, et al. Surveillance on speed: Being aware of infectious diseases in migrants mass accommodations - an easy and flexible toolkit for field application of syndromic surveillance, Germany, 2016 to 2017. Euro Surveill. 2018 Oct; 23(40): 1700430. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2018.23.40.1700430. PMID: 30301488; PMCID: PMC6178587.
46. Walker TM, Merker M, Knoblauch AM, Helbling P, Schoch OD, van der Werf MJ, et al; MDR-TB Cluster Consortium. A cluster of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis among patients arriving in Europe from the Horn of Africa: a molecular epidemiological study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Apr; 18(4): 431-40. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30004-5. Epub 2018 Jan 8. Erratum in: Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Jan 10. PMID: 29326013; PMCID: PMC5864516.
47. Mellou K, Chrisostomou A, Sideroglou T, Georgakopoulou T, Kyritsi M, Hadjichristodoulou C, et al. Hepatitis A among refugees, asylum seekers and migrants living in hosting facilities, Greece, April to December 2016. Euro Surveill. 2017 Jan 26; 22(4): 30448. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2017.22.4.30448. PMID: 28181904; PMCID: PMC5388090.
48. Michaelis K, Wenzel JJ, Stark K, Faber M. Hepatitis A virus infections and outbreaks in asylum seekers arriving to Germany, September 2015 to March 2016. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2017 Apr 26; 6(4): e26. doi: 10.1038/emi.2017.11. PMID: 28442750; PMCID: PMC5457677.
49. Vairo F, Di Bari V, Panella V, Quintavalle G, Torchia S, Serra MC, et al; Outbreak Investigation Group. An outbreak of chickenpox in an asylum seeker centre in Italy: outbreak investigation and validity of reported chickenpox history, December 2015-May 2016. Euro Surveill. 2017 Nov; 22(46): 17-00020. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2017.22.46.17-00020. PMID: 29162209; PMCID: PMC5718397.
50. Coppola N, Alessio L, Gualdieri L, Pisaturo M, Sagnelli C, Caprio N, et al. Hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus infection in undocumented migrants and refugees in southern Italy, January 2012 to June 2013. Euro Surveill. 2015; 20(35): 30009. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2015.20.35.30009. PMID: 26530499.
51. Germinario C, Gallone MS, Tafuri S. Migrant health: the Apulian model. Epidemiol Prev. 2015 Jul-Aug; 39(4 Suppl 1): 76-80. PMID: 26499420.
52. Pace-Asciak A, Mamo J, Calleja N. Tuberculosis among undocumented boat migrants to Malta: implications for a migrant tuberculosis policy. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2013 Aug; 17(8): 1065-70. doi: 10.5588/ijtld.12.0622. PMID: 23827031.
53. Takla A, Barth A, Siedler A, Stöcker P, Wichmann O, Deleré Y. Measles outbreak in an asylum-seekers’ shelter in Germany: comparison of the implemented with a hypothetical containment strategy. Epidemiol Infect. 2012 Sep; 140(9): 1589-98. doi: 10.1017/S0950268811002597. Epub 2011 Dec 12. PMID: 22313789.
54. Riccardo F, Napoli C, Bella A, Rizzo C, Rota MC, Dente MG, et al. Syndromic surveillance of epidemic-prone diseases in response to an influx of migrants from North Africa to Italy, May to October 2011. Euro Surveill. 2011 Nov 17; 16(46): 20016. doi: 10.2807/ese.16.46.20016-en. PMID: 22115045.
55. Schmid D, Fretz R, Kuo HW, Rumetshofer R, Meusburger S, Magnet E, et al. An outbreak of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis among refugees in Austria, 2005-2006. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2008 Oct; 12(10): 1190-5. PMID: 18812050.
56. WHO-UNHCR-UNICEF. Joint Statement on general principles on vaccination of refugees, asylum-seekers and migrants in the WHO European Region. Available from: [https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/46488](https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/46488) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
57. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). Infectious diseases of specific relevance to newly-arrived migrants in the EU/EEA. Available from: [https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/infectiousdiseases-specific-relevance-newly-arrived-migrants-eueea](https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/infectiousdiseases-specific-relevance-newly-arrived-migrants-eueea) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
58. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). Expert Opinion on the public health needs of irregular migrants, refugees or asylum seekers across the EU’s southern and south-eastern borders. Available from: [https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/expertopinion-public-health-needs-irregular-migrants-refugeesor-asylum-seekers](https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/expertopinion-public-health-needs-irregular-migrants-refugeesor-asylum-seekers) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
59. Eiset AH, Wejse C. Review of infectious diseases in refugees and asylum seekers-current status and going forward. Public Health Rev. 2017 Sep 8; 38: 22. doi: 10.1186/s40985-017-0065-4. PMID: 29450094; PMCID: PMC5810046.
60. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Hygiene Promotion Guidelines. Available from: [https://www.unhcr.org/media/hygiene-promotion-guidelines](https://www.unhcr.org/media/hygiene-promotion-guidelines) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
61. Issa M, McHenry M, Issa AA, Blackwood RA. Access to Safe Water and Personal Hygiene Practices in the Kulandia Refugee Camp (Jerusalem). Infect Dis Rep. 2015 Dec 23; 7(4): 6040. doi: 10.4081/idr.2015.6040. PMID: 26753084; PMCID: PMC4693332.
62. Wiltz P. Identifying and Managing Vector-Borne Diseases in Migrants and Recent Travelers in the Emergency Department. Curr Emerg Hosp Med Rep. 2023; 11(2): 58-65. doi: 10.1007/s40138-023-00265-4. Epub 2023 Apr 26. PMID: 37213267; PMCID: PMC10131502.
63. Saleh M, Farah Z, Howard N. Infectious disease surveillance for refugees at borders and in destination countries: a scoping review. BMC Public Health. 2022 Feb 4; 22(1): 227. doi: 10.1186/s12889-022-12646-7. PMID: 35114956; PMCID: PMC8813574.
64. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). Handbook on implementing syndromic surveillance in migrant reception/detention centres and other refugee settings. Available from: [https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/handbook-implementing-syndromic-surveillance-migrant-receptiondetention-centres](https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/handbook-implementing-syndromic-surveillance-migrant-receptiondetention-centres) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
65. Seedat F, Hargreaves S, Nellums LB, Ouyang J, Brown M, Friedland JS. How effective are approaches to migrant screening for infectious diseases in Europe? A systematic review. Lancet Infect Dis. 2018 Sep; 18(9): e259-e271. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(18)30117-8. Epub 2018 May 16. PMID: 29778396.
66. Bozorgmehr K, Wahedi K, Noest S, Szecsenyi J, Razum O. Infectious disease screening in asylum seekers: range, coverage and economic evaluation in Germany, 2015. Euro Surveill. 2017 Oct; 22(40): 16-00677. doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2017.22.40.16-00677. PMID: 29019315; PMCID: PMC5710125.
67. Cardoso Pinto AM, Seery P, Foster C. Infectious disease screening outcomes and reducing barriers to care for unaccompanied asylum-seeking children: a single-centre retrospective clinical analysis. BMJ Paediatr Open. 2022 Dec; 6(1): e001664. doi: 10.1136/bmjpo-2022-001664. PMID: 37737254; PMCID: PMC9809216.
68. Beeres DT, Cornish D, Vonk M, Ravensbergen SJ, Maeckelberghe ELM, Boele Van Hensbroek P, et al. Screening for infectious diseases of asylum seekers upon arrival: the necessity of the moral principle of reciprocity. BMC Med Ethics. 2018 Mar 2; 19(1): 16. doi: 10.1186/s12910-018-0256-7. PMID: 29499693; PMCID: PMC5834863.
69. Zenner D, Hafezi H, Potter J, Capone S, Matteelli A. Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of screening migrants for active tuberculosis and latent tuberculous infection. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2017 Sep 1; 21(9): 965-76. doi: 10.5588/ijtld.16.0935. PMID: 28826445.
70. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC). Guidance on infection prevention and control of COVID-19 in migrant and refugee reception and detention centres in the EU/EEA and the UK. Available from: [https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/covid-19-guidance-prevention-control-migrant-refugee-centres](https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/covid-19-guidance-prevention-control-migrant-refugee-centres) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
71. World Health Organization (WHO). Interim guidance for refugee and migrant health in relation to COVID-19 in the WHO European Region. Available from: [https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/359103](https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/359103) [Last accessed: 2024 Feb 15].
72. Hajissa K, Mutiat HA, Kaabi NA, Alissa M, Garout M, Alenezy AA, et al. COVID-19 Vaccine Acceptance and Hesitancy among Migrants, Refugees, and Foreign Workers: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Vaccines (Basel). 2023 Jun 6; 11(6): 1070. doi: 10.3390/vaccines11061070. PMID: 37376459; PMCID: PMC10302060.
73. Sherif B, Awaisu A, Kheir N. Refugee healthcare needs and barriers to accessing healthcare services in New Zealand: a qualitative phenomenological approach. BMC Health Serv Res. 2022 Nov 3; 22(1): 1310. doi: 10.1186/s12913-022-08560-8. PMID: 36329410; PMCID: PMC9632582.
74. Nezafat Maldonado BM, Collins J, Blundell HJ, Singh L. Engaging the vulnerable: A rapid review of public health communication aimed at migrants during the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe. J Migr Health. 2020; 1: 100004. doi: 10.1016/j.jmh.2020.100004. Epub 2020 Nov 13. PMID: 33447830; PMCID: PMC7661962.
75. Brønholt RLL, Langer Primdahl N, Jensen AMB, Verelst A, Derluyn I, Skovdal M. “I Just Want Some Clear Answers”: Challenges and Tactics Adopted by Migrants in Denmark When Accessing Health Risk Information about COVID-19. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021 Aug 25; 18(17): 8932. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18178932. PMID: 34501520; PMCID: PMC8431280.
76. Peñuela-O’Brien E, Wan MW, Edge D, Berry K. Health professionals’ experiences of and attitudes towards mental healthcare for migrants and refugees in Europe: A qualitative systematic review. Transcult Psychiatry. 2023 Feb; 60(1): 176-98. doi: 10.1177/13634615211067360. Epub 2022 Jan 5. PMID: 34986056; PMCID: PMC10074763.
77. Spiegel P, Chanis R, Trujillo A. Innovative health financing for refugees. BMC Med. 2018 Jun 15; 16(1): 90. doi: 10.1186/s12916-018-1068-9. PMID: 29903046; PMCID: PMC6003081.
78. Müllerschön J, Koschollek C, Santos-Hövener C, Kuehne A, Müller-Nordhorn J, Bremer V. Impact of health insurance status among migrants from sub-Saharan Africa on access to health care and HIV testing in Germany: a participatory cross-sectional survey. BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 2019 Mar 5; 19(1): 10. doi: 10.1186/s12914-019-0189-3. PMID: 30832665; PMCID: PMC6399910.
79. Sana S, Fabbro E, Zovi A, Vitiello A, Ola-Ajayi T, Zahoui Z, et al. Scoping Review on Barriers and Challenges to Pediatric Immunization Uptake among Migrants: Health Inequalities in Italy, 2003 to Mid-2023. Vaccines (Basel). 2023 Aug 25; 11(9): 1417. doi: 10.3390/vaccines11091417. PMID: 37766094; PMCID: PMC10537267.
80. Tankwanchi AS, Jaca A, Ndlambe AM, Zantsi ZP, Bowman B, Garrison MM, et al. Non-COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among migrant populations worldwide: a scoping review of the literature, 2000-2020. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2022 Sep; 21(9): 1269-87. doi: 10.1080/14760584.2022.2084075. Epub 2022 Jun 8. PMID: 35635288.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Transfer of Copyright and Permission to Reproduce Parts of Published Papers.
Authors retain the copyright for their published work. No formal permission will be required to reproduce parts (tables or illustrations) of published papers, provided the source is quoted appropriately and reproduction has no commercial intent. Reproductions with commercial intent will require written permission and payment of royalties.