COVID-19 and Nutrition Implications: A Review

Main Article Content

Claudio Maioli
Federico Cioni
Salvatore Ciappellano

Keywords

covid19 nutrition review

Abstract

Coronavirus disease arose in 2019 (COVID-19) and has been defined a current global pandemic by the WHO (Word Health Organization). Several challenges have arisen on how to treat the disease and how to prevent it. A key role for prevention is to optimally support the immune system in the general population so that the immune response is as effective as possible. This depends also on an adequate nutritional intake able to strengthen the defenses against infection. In this review we will review the most important nutrients related to COVID disease defense.

Abstract 388 | PDF Downloads 241

References

(1) Weston, S.; Frieman, M.B. COVID-19: Knowns, Unknowns, and Questions. mSphere 2020, 5
(2) Lake, M.A. What we know so far: COVID-19 current clinical knowledge and research. Clin. Med. (Lond.) 2020, 20, 124–127
(3) Rothan, H.A.; Byrareddy, S.N. The epidemiology and pathogenesis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak. J. Autoimmun. 2020, 109, 102433
(4) North, C.J.; Venter, C.S.; Jerling, J.C. The effects of dietary fibre on C-reactive protein, an inflammation marker predicting cardiovascular disease. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 63, 921–933
(5) Mozaarian, D.; Pischon, T.; Hankinson, S.E.; Rifai, N.; Joshipura, K.;Willett,W.C.; Rimm, E.B. Dietary intake of trans fatty acids and systemic inflammation in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 79, 606–612
(6 ) Rodríguez, L.; Cervantes, E.; Ortiz, R. Malnutrition and gastrointestinal and respiratory infections in children: A public health problem. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 1174–1205
(7) Gabriele, M.; Pucci, L. Diet Bioactive Compounds: Implications for Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in the Vascular System. Endocr. Metab. Immune Disord. Drug Targets 2017, 17, 264–275
(8) Shivappa, N.; Steck, S.E.; Hurley, T.G.; Hussey, J.R.; Hebert, J.R. Designing and developing a literature-derived, population-based dietary inflammatory index. Public Health Nutr. 2014, 17, 1689–1696
(9) Calder, P.C. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes. Nutrients 2010, 2, 355–374
(10) Rubin, L.P.; Ross, A.C.; Stephensen, C.B.; Bohn, T.; Tanumihardjo, S.A. Metabolic effects of inflammation on vitamin A and carotenoids in humans and animal models. Adv. Nutr. 2017, 8, 197–212
(11) Wannamethee, S.G.; Lowe, G.D.; Rumley, A.; Bruckdorfer, K.R.; Whincup, P.H. Associations of vitamin C status, fruit and vegetable intakes, and markers of inflammation and hemostasis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 567–574
(12) Khan, N.; Khymenets, O.; Urpi-Sarda, M.; Tulipani, S.; Garcia-Aloy, M.; Monagas, M.; Mora-Cubillos, X.;Llorach, R.; Andres-Lacueva, C. Cocoa polyphenols and inflammatory markers of cardiovascular disease. Nutrients 2014, 6, 844–880
(13 ) Kaulmann, A.; Bohn, T. Carotenoids, inflammation, and oxidative stress–implications of cellular signaling pathways and relation to chronic disease prevention. Nutr. Res. 2014, 34, 907–929
(14 ) Ma, Y.; Hebert, J.R.; Li, W.; Bertone-Johnson, E.R.; Olendzki, B.; Pagoto, S.L.; Tinker, L.; Rosal, M.C.; Ockene, I.S.; Ockene, J.K.; et al. Association between dietary fiber and markers of systemic inflammation in the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study. Nutrition 2008, 24, 941–949
(15) Kumar Singh, A.; Cabral, C.; Kumar, R.; Ganguly, R.; Kumar Rana, H.; Gupta, A.; Rosaria Lauro, M.; Carbone, C.; Reis, F.; Pandey, A.K. Beneficial Effects of Dietary Polyphenols on Gut Microbiota and Strategies to Improve Delivery Efficiency. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2216
(16) Yang, L.; Tu, L. Implications of gastrointestinal manifestations of COVID-19. Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 2020
(17) Glaab, E.; Ostaszewski, M. The Role of Spike-ACE2 Interaction in Pulmonary Blood Pressure Regulation. FAIRDOM Hub. 2020. Available online: https://fairdomhub.org/models/709 (accessed on 27 May 2020)
(18) Calder PC, Carr AC, Gombart AF, Eggersdorfer M. Optimal Nutritional Status for a Well-Functioning Immune System Is an Important Factor to Protect against Viral Infections. Nutrients. 2020 Apr 23;12(4):1181
(19) Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2005
(20 ) Rodríguez, L.; Cervantes, E.; Ortiz, R. Malnutrition and gastrointestinal and respiratory infections in children: A public health problem. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 1174–1205
(21) Amaral, J.F.; Foschetti, D.A.; Assis, F.A.; Menezes, J.S.; Vaz, N.M.; Faria, A.M. Immunoglobulin production is impaired in protein-deprived mice and can be restored by dietary protein supplemntation. Braz J. Med. Biol. Res. 2006, 39, 1581–1586
(22 ) Jakulj, F.; Zernicke, K.; Bacon, S.L.; van Wielingen, L.E.; Key, B.L.; West, S.G.; Campbell, T.S. A high-fat meal increases cardiovascular reactivity to psychological stress in healthy young adults. J. Nutr. 2007, 137, 935–939
(23 ) Hruby, A.; Jacques, P.F. Dietary Protein and Changes in Biomarkers of Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in the Framingham Heart Study Offspring Cohort. Curr. Dev. Nutr. 2019, 3
(24) Kostovcikova, K.; Coufal, S.; Galanova, N.; Fajstova, A.; Hudcovic, T.; Kostovcik, M.; Prochazkova, P.; Jiraskova Zakostelska, Z.; Cermakova, M.; Sediva, B.; et al. Diet Rich in Animal Protein Promotes Pro-inflammatory Macrophage Response and Exacerbates Colitis in Mice. Front. Immunol. 2019, 10, 919.
(25) Arora, S.K.; McFarlane, S.I. The case for low carbohydrate diets in diabetes management. Nutr. Metab. (Lond.) 2005, 2, 16
(26) Li, P.; Yin, Y.L.; Li, D.; Kim, S.W.;Wu, G. Amino acids and immune function. Br. J. Nutr. 2007, 98, 237–252
(27) Ren, M.; Zhang, S.H.; Zeng, X.F.; Liu, H.; Qiao, S.Y. Branched-chain Amino Acids are Beneficial to Maintain Growth Performance and Intestinal Immune-related Function in Weaned Piglets Fed Protein Restricted Diet. Asian-Australas J. Anim. Sci. 2015, 28, 1742–1750
(28) Kim, S.-H.; Roszik, J.; Grimm, E.A.; Ekmekcioglu, S. Impact of l-Arginine Metabolism on Immune Response and Anticancer Immunotherapy. Front. Oncol. 2018, 8, 67.
(29) Cruzat, V.; Macedo Rogero, M.; Noel Keane, K.; Curi, R.; Newsholme, P. Glutamine: Metabolism and Immune Function, Supplementation and Clinical Translation. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1564
(30) Mills, E.L.; Kelly, B.; O’Neill, L.A.J. Mitochondria are the powerhouses of immunity. Nat. Immunol. 2017, 18, 488–498
(31) Cruzat, V.; Macedo Rogero, M.; Noel Keane, K.; Curi, R.; Newsholme, P. Glutamine: Metabolism and Immune Function, Supplementation and Clinical Translation. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1564
(32) Fulop, T., Jr.; Wagner, J.R.; Khalil, A.; Weber, J.; Trottier, L.; Payette, H. Relationship between the response to influenza vaccination and the nutritional status in institutionalized elderly subjects. J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci. 1999, 54, M59–M64
(33) Liu F, Li L, Xu M, Wu J, Luo D, Zhu Y, Li B, Song X, Zhou X. Prognostic value of interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, and procalcitonin in patients with COVID-19. J Clin Virol. 2020 Jun;127:104370.
(34) Radzikowska, U.; Rinaldi, A.O.; Çelebi Sözener, Z.; Karaguzel, D.; Wojcik, M.; Cypryk, K.; Akdis, M.; Akdis, C.A.; Sokolowska, M. The Influence of Dietary Fatty Acids on Immune Responses. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2990
(35) Clarke, R.; Shipley, M.; Armitage, J.; Collins, R.; Harris, W. Plasma phospholipid fatty acids and CHD in older men: Whitehall study of London civil servants. Br. J. Nutr. 2009, 102, 279–284
(36) Calder, P.C. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes. Nutrients 2010, 2, 355–374
(37) Moza_arian, D.; Pischon, T.; Hankinson, S.E.; Rifai, N.; Joshipura, K.;Willett,W.C.; Rimm, E.B. Dietary intake of trans fatty acids and systemic inflammation in women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 79, 606–612
(38) Innes, J.K.; Calder, P.C. Omega-6 fatty acids and inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 2018, 132, 41–48
(39) Serhan, C.N.; Levy, B.D. Resolvins in inflammation: Emergence of the pro-resolving superfamily of mediators. J. Clin. Investig. 2018, 128, 2657–2669
(40) Kohatsu,W.; Karpowicz, S. Chapter 88-Antiinflammatory Diet. In Integrative Medicine, 4th ed.; Rakel, D., Ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018
(41) Chowdhury, R.; Warnakula, S.; Kunutsor, S.; Crowe, F.; Ward, H.A.; Johnson, L.; Franco, O.H.; Butterworth, A.S.; Forouhi, N.G.; Thompson, S.G.; et al. Association of dietary, circulating, and supplement fatty acids with coronary risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann. Intern Med. 2014, 160, 398–406
(42 ) Innes, J.K.; Calder, P.C. Omega-6 fatty acids and inflammation. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids 2018, 132, 41–48
(43) Radzikowska, U.; Rinaldi, A.O.; Çelebi Sözener, Z.; Karaguzel, D.; Wojcik, M.; Cypryk, K.; Akdis, M.; Akdis, C.A.; Sokolowska, M. The Influence of Dietary Fatty Acids on Immune Responses. Nutrients 2019, 11, 2990
(44) Morita, M.; Kuba, K.; Ichikawa, A.; Nakayama, M.; Katahira, J.; Iwamoto, R.; Watanebe, T.; Sakabe, S.; Daidoji, T.; Nakamura, S.; et al. The Lipid Mediator Protectin D1 Inhibits Influenza Virus Replication and Improves Severe Influenza. Cell 2013, 153, 112–125
(45) Siegers, J.Y.; Novakovic, B.; Hulme, K.D.; Marshall, R.; Bloxham, C.J.; Thomas,W.G.; Reichelt, M.E.; Leijten, L.; van Run, P.; Knox, K.; et al. A high fat diet increases influenza A virus-associated cardiovascular damage. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, 1537–6613
(46) Cho,W.J.; Lee, D.K.; Lee, S.Y.; Sohn, S.H.; Park, H.L.; Park, Y.W.; Kim, H.; Nam, J.H. Diet-induced obesity reduces the production of influenza vaccine-induced antibodies via impaired macrophage function. Acta Virol. 2016, 60, 298–306
(47) O’Keefe, J.H.; Gheewala, N.M.; O’Keefe, J.O. Dietary strategies for improving post-prandial glucose, lipids, inflammation, and cardiovascular health. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2008, 51, 249–255
(48 ) Liu, S.; Manson, J.E.; Buring, J.E.; Stampfer, M.J.;Willett,W.C.; Ridker, P.M. Relation between a diet with a high glycemic load and plasma concentrations of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein in middle-aged women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 75, 492–498
(49 ) Egger, G.; Dixon, J. Should obesity be the main game? Or do we need an environmental makeover to combat the inflammatory and chronic disease epidemics? Obes. Rev. 2009, 10, 237–249
(50) Goldberg, E.L.; Molony, R.D.; Kudo, E.; Sidorov, S.; Kong, Y.; Dixit, V.D.; Iwasaki, A. Ketogenic diet activates protective gammadelta T cell responses against influenza virus infection. Sci. Immunol. 2019, 4, eaav2026
(51 ) North, C.J.; Venter, C.S.; Jerling, J.C. The effects of dietary fibre on C-reactive protein, an inflammation marker predicting cardiovascular disease. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2009, 63, 921–933
(52 ) Costabile, A.; Klinder, A.; Fava, F.; Napolitano, A.; Fogliano, V.; Leonard, C.; Gibson, G.R.; Tuohy, K.M. Whole-grain wheat breakfast cereal has a prebiotic effect on the human gut microbiota: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Br. J. Nutr. 2008, 99, 110–120
(53 ) Ma, Y.; Hebert, J.R.; Li, W.; Bertone-Johnson, E.R.; Olendzki, B.; Pagoto, S.L.; Tinker, L.; Rosal, M.C.; Ockene, I.S.; Ockene, J.K.; et al. Association between dietary fiber and markers of systemic inflammation in the Women’s Health Initiative Observational Study. Nutrition 2008, 24, 941–949
(54) Herder, C.; Peltonen, M.; Koenig,W.; Sutfels, K.; Lindstrom, J.; Martin, S.; Ilanne-Parikka, P.; Eriksson, J.G.; Aunola, S.; Keinanen-Kiukaanniemi, S.; et al. Anti-inflammatory e_ect of lifestyle changes in the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Diabetologia 2009, 52, 433–442
(55) Hanada, S.; Pirzadeh, M.; Carver, K.Y.; Deng, J.C. Respiratory Viral Infection-Induced Microbiome Alterations and Secondary Bacterial Pneumonia. Front. Immunol. 2018, 9, 2640
(56) Botic, T.; Klingberg, T.D.;Weingartl, H.; Cencic, A. A novel eukaryotic cell culture model to study antiviral activity of potential probiotic bacteria. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007, 115, 227–234
(57) Chen, H.W.; Liu, P.F.; Liu, Y.T.; Kuo, S.; Zhang, X.Q.; Schooley, R.T.; Rohde, H.; Gallo, R.L.; Huang, C.M. Nasal commensal Staphylococcus epidermidis counteracts influenza virus. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 27870
(58) Tuyama, A.C.; Cheshenko, N.; Carlucci, M.J.; Li, J.H.; Goldberg, C.L.; Waller, D.P.; Anderson, R.A.; Profy, A.T.; Klotman, M.E.; Keller, M.J.; et al. ACIDFORM inactivates herpes simplex virus and prevents genital herpes in a mouse model: Optimal candidate for microbicide combinations. J. Infect Dis. 2006, 194, 795–803
(59 ) Ferrey, A.J.; Choi, G.; Hanna, R.M.; Chang, Y.; Tantisattamo, E.; Ivaturi, K.; Park, E.; Nguyen, L.;Wang, B.; Tonthat, S.; et al. A Case of Novel Coronavirus Disease 19 in a Chronic Hemodialysis Patient Presenting with Gastroenteritis and Developing Severe Pulmonary Disease. Am. J. Nephrol. 2020, 51, 337–342
(60 ) Müller, O.; Krawinkel, M. Malnutrition and health in developing countries. CMAJ 2005, 173, 279–286
(61) Grune, T.; Lietz, G.; Palou, A.; Ross, A.C.; Stahl, W.; Tang, G.; Thurnham, D.; Yin, S.-A.; Biesalski, H.K. Beta-carotene is an important vitamin A source for humans. J. Nutr. 2010, 140, 2268S–2285S
(62 ) McCullough, F.S.; Northrop-Clewes, C.A.; Thurnham, D.I. The effect of vitamin A on epithelial integrity. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 1999, 58, 289–293
(63) Hiemstra, I.H.; Beijer, M.R.; Veninga, H.; Vrijland, K.; Borg, E.G.; Olivier, B.J.; Mebius, R.E.; Kraal, G.; den Haan, J.M. The identification and developmental requirements of colonic CD169(+) macrophages. Immunology 2014, 142, 269–278
(64) Shrestha, S.; Kim, S.Y.; Yun, Y.J.; Kim, J.K.; Lee, J.M.; Shin, M.; Song, D.K.; Hong, C.W. Retinoic acid induces hypersegmentation and enhances cytotoxicity of neutrophils against cancer cells. Immunol. Lett. 2017, 182, 24–29
(65) Chang, H.K.; Hou,W.S. Retinoic acid modulates interferon-gamma production by hepatic natural killer T cells via phosphatase 2A and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway. J. Interferon Cytokine Res. 2015, 35, 200–212
(66) Mosekilde, L. Vitamin D and the elderly. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 2005, 62, 265–281
(67) Von Essen, M.R.; Kongsbak, M.; Schjerling, P.; Olgaard, K.; Odum, N.; Geisler, C. Vitamin D controls T cell antigen receptor signaling and activation of human T cells. Nat. Immunol. 2010, 11, 344–349
(68 ) Gruber-Bzura, B.M. Vitamin D and Influenza-Prevention or Therapy? Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2018, 19, 2419
(69) Zhou, J.; Du, J.; Huang, L.;Wang, Y.; Shi, Y.; Lin, H. Preventive E_ects of Vitamin D on Seasonal InfluenzaA in Infants: A Multicenter, Randomized, Open, Controlled Clinical Trial. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2018, 37, 749–754
(70) Li, X.; He, J.; Yu, M.; Sun, J. The efficacy of vitamin D therapy for patients with COPD: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Ann. Palliat. Med. 2020, 9, 286–297
(71) Grant, W.B.; Lahore, H.; McDonnell, S.L.; Baggerly, C.A.; French, C.B.; Aliano, J.L.; Bhattoa, H.P. Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths. Nutrients 2020, 12, 988
(72) Glaab, E.; Ostaszewski, M. The Role of Spike-ACE2 Interaction in Pulmonary Blood Pressure Regulation. FAIRDOM Hub. 2020. Available online: https://fairdomhub.org/models/709 (accessed on 27 May 2020)
(73) Raharusun, P.; Priambada, S.; Budiarti, C.; Agung, E.; Budi, C. Patterns of COVID-19 Mortality and Vitamin D: An Indonesian Study. SSRN 2020
(74) Laird, E.; Rhodes, J.; Kenny, R.A. Vitamin D and Inflammation: Potential Implications for Severity ofCovid-19. Ir. Med. J. 2020
(75) Im JH, Je YS, Baek J, Chung MH, Kwon HY, Lee JS. Nutritional status of patients with COVID-19. Int J Infect Dis. 2020 Aug 11;100:390-393
(76 ) Grant WB, Lahore H, McDonnell SL, Baggerly CA, French CB, Aliano JL, Bhattoa HP. Evidence that Vitamin D Supplementation Could Reduce Risk of Influenza and COVID-19 Infections and Deaths. Nutrients. 2020 Apr 2;12(4):988
(77) Strain, J.J.; Mulholland, C.W. Vitamin C and vitamin E–synergistic interactions in vivo? Exs 1992, 62, 419–422
(78) Lee, G.Y.; Han, S.N. The Role of Vitamin E in Immunity. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1614
(79) Buendia, P.; Ramirez, R.; Aljama, P.; Carracedo, J. Klotho Prevents Translocation of NFkappaB. Vitam Horm 2016, 101, 119–150
(80) Stiff, A.; Trikha, P.; Mundy-Bosse, B.; McMichael, E.; Mace, T.A.; Benner, B.; Kendra, K.; Campbell, A.;Gautam, S.; Abood, D.; et al. Nitric Oxide Production by Myeloid-Derived Suppressor Cells Plays a Role in Impairing Fc Receptor-Mediated Natural Killer Cell Function. Clin. Cancer Res. 2018, 24, 1891–1904
(81) Beharka, A.A.; Han, S.N.; Adolfsson, O.; Wu, D.; Smith, D.; Lipman, R.; Cao, G.; Meydani, M.; Meydani, S.N. Long-term dietary antioxidant supplementation reduces production of selected inflammatory mediators by murine macrophages. Nutr. Res. 2000, 20, 281–296
(82) Meydani, S.N.; Meydani, M.; Blumberg, J.B.; Leka, L.S.; Siber, G.; Loszewski, R.; Thompson, C.; Pedrosa, M.C.; Diamond, R.D.; Stollar, B.D. Vitamin E supplementation and in vivo immune response in healthy elderly subjects. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1997, 277, 1380–1386
(83) Hemila, H. Vitamin E administration may decrease the incidence of pneumonia in elderly males. Clin. Interv. Aging 2016, 11, 1379–1385
(84) Wannamethee, S.G.; Lowe, G.D.; Rumley, A.; Bruckdorfer, K.R.; Whincup, P.H. Associations of vitamin C status, fruit and vegetable intakes, and markers of inflammation and hemostasis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 83, 567–574.
(85) Carr, A.C.; Shaw, G.M.; Fowler, A.A.; Natarajan, R. Ascorbate-dependent vasopressor synthesis: A rationale for vitamin C administration in severe sepsis and septic shock? Crit. Care 2015, 19, 418
(86) Huijskens, M.J.;Walczak, M.; Koller, N.; Briede, J.J.; Senden-Gijsbers, B.L.; Schnijderberg, M.C.; Bos, G.M.; Germeraad, W.T. Technical advance: Ascorbic acid induces development of double-positive T cells from human hematopoietic stem cells in the absence of stromal cells. J. Leukoc. Biol. 2014, 96, 1165–1175
(87 ) Hemila, H. Vitamin C and Infections. Nutrients 2017, 9, 339
(88 ) Hunt, C.; Chakravorty, N.K.; Annan, G.; Habibzadeh, N.; Schorah, C.J. The clinical effects of vitamin C supplementation in elderly hospitalised patients with acute respiratory infections. Int. J. Vitam Nutr. Res. 1994, 64, 212–219
(89) Vorilhon, P.; Arpajou, B.; Vaillant Roussel, H.; Merlin, E.; Pereira, B.; Cabaillot, A. E_cacy of vitamin C for the prevention and treatment of upper respiratory tract infection. A meta-analysis in children. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2019, 75, 303–311
(90)Tamura, J.; Kubota, K.; Murakami, H.; Sawamura, M.; Matsushima, T.; Tamura, T.; Saitoh, T.; Kurabayshi, H.; Naruse, T. Immunomodulation by vitamin B12: Augmentation of CD8+ T lymphocytes and natural killer (NK) cell activity in vitamin B12-deficient patients by methyl-B12 treatment. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1999, 116, 28–32
(91)Poudel-Tandukar, K.; Chandyo, R.K. Dietary B Vitamins and Serum C-Reactive Protein in Persons With Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection: The Positive LivingWith HIV (POLH) Study. Food Nutr. Bull. 2016, 37, 517–528.
(92) Shaw, J.G.; Friedman, J.F. Iron deficiency anemia: Focus on infectious diseases in lesser developed countries. Anemia 2011, 2011, 260380
(93) Semba, R.D.; Bloem, M.W. The anemia of vitamin A deficiency: Epidemiology and pathogenesis. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 56, 271–281
(94) Alpert, P.T. The Role of Vitamins and Minerals on the Immune System. Home Health Care Manag. Pract. 2017, 29, 199–202
(95) Drakesmith, H.; Prentice, A. Viral infection and iron metabolism. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 2008, 6, 541–552
(96) Dhur, A.; Galan, P.; Hannoun, C.; Huot, K.; Hercberg, S. E_ects of iron deficiency upon the antibody response to influenza virus in rats. J. Nutr. Biochem. 1990, 1, 629–634
(97) Ahluwalia, N.; Sun, J.; Krause, D.; Mastro, A.; Handte, G. Immune function is impaired in iron-deficient, homebound, older women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2004, 79, 516–521
(98) Jayaweera, J.; Reyes, M.; Joseph, A. Childhood iron deficiency anemia leads to recurrent respiratory tract infections and gastroenteritis. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 12637
(99) Maggini, S.; Pierre, A.; Calder, P.C. Immune Function and Micronutrient Requirements Change over the Life Course. Nutrients 2018, 10, 1531
(100) Besold, A.N.; Culbertson, E.M.; Culotta, V.C. The Yin and Yang of copper during infection. JBIC J. Biol. Inorganic Chem. 2016, 21, 137–144
(101) Wintergerst, E.S.; Maggini, S.; Hornig, D.H. Contribution of selected vitamins and trace elements to immune function. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 2007, 51, 301–323
(102 ) Weiss, G.; Carver, P.L. Role of divalent metals in infectious disease susceptibility and outcome.Clin. Microbiol. Infect 2018, 24, 16–23
(103) Wessells, K.R.; Brown, K.H. Estimating the global prevalence of zinc deficiency: Results based on zinc availability in national food supplies and the prevalence of stunting. PLoS ONE 2012, 7
(104) Black, R.E. Zinc deficiency, infectious disease and mortality in the developing world. J. Nutr. 2003, 133, 1485s–1489s
(105) Read, S.A.; Obeid, S.; Ahlenstiel, C.; Ahlenstiel, G. The Role of Zinc in Antiviral Immunity. Adv. Nutr. 2019, 10, 696–710
(106) Alpert, P.T. The Role of Vitamins and Minerals on the Immune System. Home Health Care Manag. Pract. 2017, 29, 199–202
(107) Bulyk, M.L.; Huang, X.; Choo, Y.; Church, G.M. Exploring the DNA-binding specificities of zinc fingers with DNA microarrays. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2001, 98, 7158–7163
(108) Andreini, C.; Bertini, I.; Cavallaro, G. Minimal functional sites allow a classification of zinc sites in proteins. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e26325
(109) Gammoh, N.Z.; Rink, L. Zinc in Infection and Inflammation. Nutrients 2017, 9, 624
(110) Barnett, J.B.; Hamer, D.H.; Meydani, S.N. Low zinc status: A new risk factor for pneumonia in the elderly? Nutr. Rev. 2010, 68, 30–37
(111) Mossad, S.B.; Macknin, M.L.; Medendorp, S.V.; Mason, P. Zinc gluconate lozenges for treating the common cold. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Ann. Intern. Med. 1996, 125, 81–88
(112) Steinbrenner, H.; Al-Quraishy, S.; Dkhil, M.A.; Wunderlich, F.; Sies, H. Dietary selenium in adjuvant therapy of viral and bacterial infections. Adv. Nutr. 2015, 6, 73–82
(113) Sto_aneller, R.; Morse, N.L. A review of dietary selenium intake and selenium status in Europe and the Middle East. Nutrients 2015, 7, 1494–1537
(114) Steinbrenner, H.; Speckmann, B.; Klotz, L.O. Selenoproteins: Antioxidant selenoenzymes and beyond. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 2016, 595, 113–119
(115) Ho_mann, P.R.; Berry, M.J. The influence of selenium on immune responses. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 2008, 52, 1273–1280
(116) Alpert, P.T. The Role of Vitamins and Minerals on the Immune System. Home Health Care Manag. Pract. 2017, 29, 199–202.
(117) Lee, Y.-H.; Lee, S.J.; Lee, M.K.; Lee, W.-Y.; Yong, S.J.; Kim, S.-H. Serum selenium levels in patients with respiratory diseases: A prospective observational study. J. Thorac. Dis. 2016, 8, 2068–2078
(118) Esmaillzadeh, A.; Kimiagar, M.; Mehrabi, Y.; Azadbakht, L.; Hu, F.B.; Willett, W.C. Fruit and vegetable intakes, C-reactive protein, and the metabolic syndrome. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2006, 84, 1489–1497
(119) Khan, N.; Khymenets, O.; Urpi-Sarda, M.; Tulipani, S.; Garcia-Aloy, M.; Monagas, M.; Mora-Cubillos, X.; Llorach, R.; Andres-Lacueva, C. Cocoa polyphenols and inflammatory markers of cardiovascular disease. Nutrients 2014, 6, 844–880
(120) Chun, O.K.; Chung, S.J.; Claycombe, K.J.; Song, W.O. Serum C-reactive protein concentrations are inversely associated with dietary flavonoid intake in U.S. adults. J. Nutr. 2008, 138, 753–760
(121) Martinez-Lopez, S.; Sarria, B.; Sierra-Cinos, J.L.; Goya, L.; Mateos, R.; Bravo, L. Realistic intake of a flavanol-rich soluble cocoa product increases HDL-cholesterol without inducing anthropometric changes in healthy and moderately hypercholesterolemic subjects. Food Funct. 2014, 5, 364–374
(122) Flammer, A.J.; Sudano, I.; Wolfrum, M.; Thomas, R.; Enseleit, F.; Periat, D.; Kaiser, P.; Hirt, A.; Hermann, M.; Serafini, M.; et al. Cardiovascular effects of flavanol-rich chocolate in patients with heart failure. Eur. Heart J. 2012, 33, 2172–2180
(123) Bahramsoltani, R.; Sodagari, H.R.; Farzaei, M.H.; Abdolgha_ari, A.H.; Gooshe, M.; Rezaei, N. The preventive and therapeutic potential of natural polyphenols on influenza. Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther. 2016, 14, 57–80
(124) Mishra, S.; Pandey, A.; Manvati, S. Coumarin: An emerging antiviral agent. Heliyon 2020, 6, e03217
(125) Zu, M.; Yang, F.; Zhou, W.; Liu, A.; Du, G.; Zheng, L. In vitro anti-influenza virus and anti-inflammatory activities of theaflavin derivatives. Antiviral Res. 2012, 94, 217–224
(126) Donma MM, Donma O. The effects of allium sativum on immunity within the scope of COVID-19 Infection Med Hypotheses. 2020 Jun 2;144:109934.
(127) Colunga Biancatelli RML, Berrill M, Catravas JD, Marik PE. Quercetin and Vitamin C: An Experimental, Synergistic Therapy for the Prevention and Treatment of SARS-CoV-2 Related Disease (COVID-19). Front Immunol. 2020 Jun 19;11:1451
(128) M.C.G. Font´an, S. Martínez, I. Franco, J. Carballo, Microbiological and chemical changes during the manufacture of Kefir made from cows’ milk, using a commercial starter culture, Int. Dairy J. 16 (7) (2006) 762–767
(129) U. Nalbantoglu, A. Cakar, H. Dogan, N. Abaci, D. Ustek, K. Sayood, et al., Metagenomic analysis of the microbial community in kefir grains, Food Microbiol. 41 (2014) 42–51
(130) K.P. Fernandez-Duarte, N.N. Olaya-Galan, S.P. Salas-Cardenas, J. Lopez-Rozo, M. F. Gutierrez-Fernandez, Bifidobacterium adolescentis (DSM 20083) and Lactobacillus casei (Lafti L26-DSL): probiotics able to block the in vitro adherence of rotavirus in MA104 cells, Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins 10 (1) (2018) 56–63.
(131) Hamida RS, Shami A, Ali MA, Almohawes ZN, Mohammed AE, Bin-Meferij MM. Kefir: A protective dietary supplementation against viral infection. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020 Nov 11;133;110974
(132) Berretta AA, Silveira MAD, Cóndor Capcha JM, De Jong D. Propolis and its potential against SARS-CoV-2 infection mechanisms and COVID-19 disease: Running title: Propolis against SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020 Nov;131:110622.
(133) Khubber S, Hashemifesharaki R, Mohammadi M, Gharibzahedi SMT. Garlic (Allium sativum L.): a potential unique therapeutic food rich in organosulfur and flavonoid compounds to fight with COVID-19. Nutr J. 2020 Nov 18;19(1):124
(134) SINU, Società italiana di Nutrizione Umana). LARN- Livelli di Assunzione di Riferimento di Nutrienti ed Energia per la popolazione italiana (LIV rev), Coordinamento editoriale SINI-INRAN, Milano: SICS 2014

Most read articles by the same author(s)

1 2 > >>